Current approach to resistance training: A traditional review of unstable load and surface methods
Direnç antrenmanlarına güncel yaklaşım: Stabil olmayan yük ve zemin yöntemleri üzerine geleneksel bir derleme
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14687/jhs.v22i1.6555Keywords:
Resistance training, Unstable ground and load methods, Unstable ground and load equipment, Direnç antrenmanları, Stabil olmayan zemin ve yük yöntemleri, Stabil olmayan zemin ve yük ekipmanlarıAbstract
In recent years, there has been a shift from traditional resistance training to functional training. Unstable surface (US) methods and equipment have been used in functional training for many years. To eliminate some of the disadvantages of these methods and equipment, unstable load (UL) methods, an alternative method, have begun to be used. In the unstable surface (US) method, instability is between the body and an unstable training surface, while in the unstable load (UL) method, instability is between the body and an unstable load. The deficiencies in force output that occur when training on an unstable surface are one of the main reasons why training on an unstable surface is not recommended in an athletic population. However, it is observed that no increase in the activation level of agonist muscles is observed in trainings performed on unstable surfaces. It is observed that strength loss decreases to a minimum level in unstable load (UL) methods. An increase in the activation of agonist muscles is reported in these methods. The purpose of this review is to define unstable load and ground methods, which are increasingly used by researchers and practitioners and are a current approach in resistance training, from a holistic perspective, to explain the terms and equipment used, and to provide information about their applications.
(Extended English summary is at the end of this document)
Özet
Son yıllarda geleneksel direnç antrenmanlarından fonksiyonel antrenmana doğru bir değişim yaşanmaktadır. Fonksiyonel antrenmanlarda stabil olmayan zemin (SOZ) yöntemleri ve ekipmanları uzun yıllardır kullanılmaktadır. Bu yöntem ve ekipmanların birtakım dezavantajlarını ortadan kaldırmak adına alternatif bir yöntem olan stabil olmayan yük (SOY) yöntemleri kullanılmaya başlanmıştır. Stabil olmayan zemin (SOZ) yönteminde instabilite vücut ile instabil bir antrenman yüzeyi arasında iken stabil olmayan yük (SOY) yönteminde ise instabilite, vücut ile instabil bir yük arasındadır. Stabil olmayan bir yüzeyde antrenman yaparken oluşan kuvvet çıkışındaki eksiklikler, atletik bir popülasyonda stabil olmayan bir yüzeyde antrenmanın tavsiye edilmemesinin ana nedenlerinden biridir. Bununla birlikte stabil olmayan zeminlerde yapılan antrenmanlarda agonist kasların aktivasyon seviyesinde bir artış gözlemlenmediği görülmektedir. Stabil olmayan yük (SOY) yöntemlerinde kuvvet kaybının minimuma seviyeye düştüğü görülmektedir. Bu yöntemlerde agonist kasların aktivasyonunda bir artış olduğu rapor edilmektedir. Bu derlemenin amacı, araştırmacılar ve uygulayıcılar tarafından kullanımı gün geçtikçe artan ve direnç antrenmanlarında güncel bir yaklaşım olan stabil olmayan yük ve zemin yöntemlerini bütünsel bir bakış açısıyla tanımlamak, kullanımındaki terimleri ve ekipmanları açıklamak ve uygulamaları hakkında bilgi vermektir.
Downloads
Metrics
References
American College of Sports Medicine. (2009). American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 41(3), 687-708.
Anderson, C. E., Sforzo, G. A., & Sigg, J. A. (2008). The effects of combining elastic and free weight resistance on strength and power in athletes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 22(2), 567-574.
Anderson, G. S., Gaetz, M., Holzmann, M., & Twist, P. (2013). Comparison of EMG activity during stable and unstable push-up protocols. European Journal of Sport Science, 13(1), 42-48.
Anderson, K. G., & Behm, D. G. (2004). Maintenance of EMG activity and loss of force output with instability. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 18(3), 637-640.
Anderson, K., & Behm, D. G. (2005). Trunk muscle activity increases with unstable squat movements. Canadian journal of applied physiology, 30(1), 33-45.
Atkins, S. J., Bentley, I., Brooks, D., Burrows, M. P., Hurst, H. T., & Sinclair, J. K. (2015). Electromyographic response of global abdominal stabilizers in response to stable-and unstable-base isometric exercise. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(6), 1609-1615.
Badau, A., Badau, D., & Enoiu, R. S. (2019). Evaluation of stable balance capacity by using bosu ball surfaces on different pressure levels. Mater. Plast, 56, 216-219.
Baker, D., & Newton, R. U. (2005). Methods to increase the effectiveness of maximal power training for the upper body. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 27(6), 24-32.
Beach, T. A., Howarth, S. J., & Callaghan, J. P. (2008). Muscular contribution to low-back loading and stiffness during standard and suspended push-ups. Human Movement Science, 27(3), 457-472.
Behm, D. G., Anderson, K., & Curnew, R. S. (2002). Muscle force and activation under stable and unstable conditions. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 16(3), 416-422.
Behm, D. G., Drinkwater, E. J., Willardson, J. M., & Cowley, P. M. (2010). The use of instability to train the core musculature. Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism, 35(1), 91-108.
Behm, D. G., Muehlbauer, T., Kibele, A., & Granacher, U. (2015). Effects of strength training using unstable surfaces on strength, power and balance performance across the lifespan: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 45, 1645-1669.
Behm, D., & Colado, J. C. (2012). The effectiveness of resistance training using unstable surfaces and devices for rehabilitation. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 7(2), 226.
Berning, J. M., Coker, C. A., & Adams, K. J. (2004). Using chains for strength and conditioning. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 26(5), 80-84.
Berning, J. M., Coker, C. A., & Briggs, D. (2008). The biomechanical and perceptual influence of chain resistance on the performance of the olympic clean. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 22(2), 390-395.
Bettendorf, B. (2010). TRX suspension training bodyweight exercises: scientific foundations and practical applications. San Francisco: Fitness Anywhere Inc.
Borreani, S., Calatayud, J., Colado, J. C., Moya-Nájera, D., Triplett, N. T., & Martin, F. (2015a). Muscle activation during push-ups performed under stable and unstable conditions. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 13(2), 94-98.
Borreani, S., Calatayud, J., Colado, J. C., Tella, V., Moya-Nájera, D., Martin, F., & Rogers, M. E. (2015b). Shoulder muscle activation during stable and suspended push-ups at different heights in healthy subjects. Physical Therapy in Sport, 16(3), 248-254.
Byrne, J. M., Bishop, N. S., Caines, A. M., Crane, K. A., Feaver, A. M., & Pearcey, G. E. (2014). Effect of using a suspension training system on muscle activation during the performance of a front plank exercise. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(11), 3049-3055.
Calatayud, J., Borreani, S., Colado, J. C., Martín, F. F., Rogers, M. E., Behm, D. G., & Andersen, L. L. (2014c). Muscle activation during push-ups with different suspension training systems. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 13(3), 502.
Calatayud, J., Borreani, S., Colado, J. C., Martin, F., & Rogers, M. E. (2014b). Muscle activity levels in upper-body push exercises with different loads and stability conditions. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 42(4), 106-119.
Calatayud, J., Borreani, S., Colado, J., Martin, F., Batalha, N., & Silva, A. (2014a). Muscle activation differences between stable push-ups and push-ups with an unilateral v-shaped suspension system at different heights. Motricidade 10(4), 84-93.
Caterisano, A., Hutchison, R., Parker, C., James, S., & Opskar, S. (2018). Improved functional power over a 5-week period: Comparison of combined weight training to flexible barbell training. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(8), 2109-2115.
Chulvi-Medrano, I., García-Massó, X., Colado, J. C., Pablos, C., De Moraes, J. A., & Fuster, M. A. (2010). Deadlift muscle force and activation under stable and unstable conditions. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(10), 2723-2730.
Coker, C. A., Berning, J. M., & Briggs, D. L. (2006). Aprelımınary ınvestıgatıon of the bıomechanıcal and perceptual ınfluence of chaın resıstance on the performance of the snatch. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 20(4), 887-891.
Costello, K. (2022). Effects of various forms of unstable load on muscle electromyography in the stabilizing musculature and rating of perceived exertion in the bench press. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 36(4), 881-887.
Cowley, P. M., Swensen, T., & Sforzo, G. A. (2007). Efficacy of instability resistance training. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 829-835.
Cressey, E. M., West, C. A., Tiberio, D. P., Kraemer, W. J., & Maresh, C. M. (2007). The effects of ten weeks of lower-body unstable surface training on markers of athletic performance. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 21(2), 561-567.
Czaprowski, D., Afeltowicz, A., Gębicka, A., Pawłowska, P., Kędra, A., Barrios, C., & Hadała, M. (2014). Abdominal muscle EMG-activity during bridge exercises on stable and unstable surfaces. Physical Therapy in Sport, 15(3), 162-168.
De Souza Bezerra, E., Da Rosa Orssatto, L. B., Werlang, L. C., Generoso, A. M., Moraes, G., & Sakugawa, R. L. (2020). Effect of push-up variations performed with Swiss ball on muscle electromyographic amplitude in trained men: a cross-sectional study. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 24(2), 74-78.
Ditroilo, M., O’Sullivan, R., Harnan, B., Crossey, A., Gillmor, B., Dardis, W., & Grainger, A. (2018). Water-filled training tubes increase core muscle activation and somatosensory control of balance during squat. Journal of Sports Sciences, 36(17), 2002-2008.
Dunnick, D. D., Brown, L. E., Coburn, J. W., Lynn, S. K., & Barillas, S. R. (2015). Bench press upper-body muscle activation between stable and unstable loads. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(12), 3279-3283.
Ebben, W. E., & Jensen, R. L. (2002). Electromyographic and kinetic analysis of traditional, chain, and elastic band squats. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 16(4), 547-550.
Escamilla, R. F., Lewis, C., Bell, D., Bramblet, G., Daffron, J., Lambert, S., & Andrews, J. R. (2010). Core muscle activation during Swiss ball and traditional abdominal exercises. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 40(5), 265-276.
Glass, S. C., & Albert, R. W. (2018). Compensatory muscle activation during unstable overhead squat using a water-filled training tube. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 32(5), 1230-1237.
Glass, S. C., Blanchette, T. W., Karwan, L. A., Pearson, S. S., O'Neil, A. P., & Karlik, D. A. (2016). Core muscle activation during unstable bicep curl using a water-filled instability training tube. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 30(11), 3212-3219.
Gołaś, A., Zwierzchowska, A., Maszczyk, A., Wilk, M., Stastny, P., & Zając, A. (2017). Neuromuscular control during the bench press movement in an elite disabled and able-bodied athlete. Journal of Human Kinetics, 60(1), 209-215.
Goodman, C. A., Pearce, A. J., Nicholes, C. J., Gatt, B. M., & Fairweather, I. H. (2008). No difference in 1RM strength and muscle activation during the barbell chest press on a stable and unstable surface. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 22(1), 88-94.
Granacher, U., Prieske, O., Majewski, M., Büsch, D., & Mühlbauer, T. (2015). The role of instability with plyometric training in sub-elite adolescent soccer players. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 386-394.
Granacher, U., Schellbach, J., Klein, K., Prieske, O., Baeyens, J. P., & Muehlbauer, T. (2014). Effects of core strength training using stable versus unstable surfaces on physical fitness in adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 6, 1-11.
Green, C. M., & Comfort, P. (2007). The affect of grip width on bench press performance and risk of injury. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 29(5), 10-14.
Hutchison, R. E., & Caterisano, A. (2017). Electromyographic and kinetic comparison of a flexible and steel barbell. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 12(2), 380-385.
Khamtha, R., & Srihirun, K. (2021). Effects of Stable and Unstable Load on Stable and Unstable Surface on EMG Activity and Ground Reaction Force During the Squat Exercise. Journal of Exercise Physiology, 24(1), 35-43.
Kibele, A., & Behm, D. G. (2009). Seven weeks of instability and traditional resistance training effects on strength, balance and functional performance. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2443-2450.
Kibele, A., Classen, C., Muehlbauer, T., Granacher, U., & Behm, D. G. (2014). Metastability in plyometric training on unstable surfaces: a pilot study. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 6, 1-11.
Kohler, J. M., Flanagan, S. P., & Whiting, W. C. (2010). Muscle activation patterns while lifting stable and unstable loads on stable and unstable surfaces. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(2), 313-321.
Lawrence, M. A., & Carlson, L. A. (2015). Effects of an unstable load on force and muscle activation during a parallel back squat. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(10), 2949-2953.
Lawrence, M. A., Leib, D. J., Ostrowski, S. J., & Carlson, L. A. (2017). Nonlinear analysis of an unstable bench press bar path and muscle activation. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(5), 1206-1211.
Lawrence, M. A., Ostrowski, S. J., Leib, D. J., & Carlson, L. A. (2021). Effect of unstable loads on stabilizing muscles and bar motion during the bench press. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 35, S120-S126.
Lehman, G. J. (2005). The influence of grip width and forearm pronation/supination on upper-body myoelectric activity during the flat bench press. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 19(3), 587-591.
Lehman, G. J., MacMillan, B., MacIntyre, I., Chivers, M., & Fluter, M. (2006). Shoulder muscle EMG activity during push up variations on and off a Swiss ball. Dynamic Medicine, 5, 1-7.
Li, F., Harmer, P., Fisher, K. J., & McAuley, E. (2004). Tai Chi: improving functional balance and predicting subsequent falls in older persons. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 36(12), 2046-2052.
Marshall, P., & Murphy, B. (2006). Changes in muscle activity and perceived exertion during exercises performed on a swiss ball. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, 31(4), 376-383.
Marquina, M., Lorenzo-Calvo, J., García-Sánchez, C., Rubia, A. D. L., Rivilla-García, J., & Ferro-Sánchez, A. (2023). How Does Instability Affect Bench Press Performance? Acute Effect Analysis with Different Loads in Trained and Untrained Populations. Sports, 11(3), 67.
McBride, J. M., Cormie, P., & Deane, R. (2006). Isometric squat force output and muscle activity in stable and unstable conditions. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 20(4), 915-918.
McBride, J. M., Larkin, T. R., Dayne, A. M., Haines, T. L., & Kirby, T. J. (2010). Effect of absolute and relative loading on muscle activity during stable and unstable squatting. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 5(2), 177-183.
McGill, S. M., Cannon, J., & Andersen, J. T. (2014a). Analysis of pushing exercises: Muscle activity and spine load while contrasting techniques on stable surfaces with a labile suspension strap training system. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(1), 105-116.
McGill, S. M., Cannon, J., & Andersen, J. T. (2014b). Muscle activity and spine load during pulling exercises: influence of stable and labile contact surfaces and technique coaching. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 24(5), 652-665.
Mcmaster, D. T., Cronin, J., & McGuigan, M. R. (2010). Quantification of rubber and chain-based resistance modes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(8), 2056-2064.
Mori, A. (2004). Electromyographic activity of selected trunk muscles during stabilization exercises using a gym ball. Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 44(1), 57-64.
Nairn, B. C., Sutherland, C. A., & Drake, J. D. (2015). Location of instability during a bench press alters movement patterns and electromyographical activity. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(11), 3162-3170.
Norwood, J. T., Anderson, G. S., Gaetz, M. B., & Twist, P. W. (2007). Electromyographic activity of the trunk stabilizers during stable and unstable bench press. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 21(2), 343-347.
Oberacker, L. M., Davis, S. E., Haff, G. G., Witmer, C. A., & Moir, G. L. (2012). The Yo-Yo IR2 test: physiological response, reliability, and application to elite soccer. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(10), 2734-2740.
Ostrowski, S. J., Carlson, L. A., & Lawrence, M. A. (2017). Effect of an unstable load on primary and stabilizing muscles during the bench press. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 31(2), 430-434.
Prieske, O., Mühlbauer, T., Borde, R. A., Gube, M., Bruhn, S., Behm, D. G., & Granacher, U. (2016). Neuromuscular and athletic performance following core strength training in elite youth soccer: Role of instability. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 26(1), 48-56.
Rausch, L. (2020). Functional mobility and balance of college-age adults before and after TRX® suspension training.
Romero-Franco, N., Martínez-López, E. J., Lomas-Vega, R., Hita-Contreras, F., Osuna-Pérez, M. C., & Martínez-Amat, A. (2013). Short-term effects of proprioceptive training with unstable platform on athletes' stabilometry. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 27(8), 2189-2197.
Saeterbakken, A. H., & Fimland, M. S. (2013a). Electromyographic activity and 6RM strength in bench press on stable and unstable surfaces. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 27(4), 1101-1107.
Saeterbakken, A. H., & Fimland, M. S. (2013b). Muscle force output and electromyographic activity in squats with various unstable surfaces. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 27(1), 130-136.
Saeterbakken, A. H., Andersen, V., Jansson, J., Kvellestad, A. C., & Fimland, M. S. (2014). Effects of BOSU ball (s) during sit-ups with body weight and added resistance on core muscle activation. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(12), 3515-3522.
Saeterbakken, A. H., Mo, D. A., Scott, S., & Andersen, V. (2017). The effects of press variations in competitive athletes on muscle activity and performance. Journal of Human Kinetics, (57), 61-71
Saeterbakken, A. H., Van Den Tillaar, R., & Fimland, M. S. (2011). A comparison of muscle activity and 1-RM strength of three chest-press exercises with different stability requirements. Journal of sports sciences, 29(5), 533-538.
Schick, E. E., Coburn, J. W., Brown, L. E., Judelson, D. A., Khamoui, A. V., Tran, T. T., & Uribe, B. P. (2010). A comparison of muscle activation between a Smith machine and free weight bench press. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(3), 779-784.
Schwanbeck, S., Chilibeck, P. D., & Binsted, G. (2009). A comparison of free weight squat to Smith machine squat using electromyography. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(9), 2588-2591.
Seger, J. Y., & Thorstensson, A. (2005). Effects of eccentric versus concentric training on thigh muscle strength and EMG. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 26(01), 45-52.
Snarr, R. L., & Esco, M. R. (2013a). Comparison of electromyographic activity when performing an inverted row with and without a suspension device. Age (yrs), 26(4.2), 22-3.
Snarr, R. L., & Esco, M. R. (2013b). Electromyographic comparison of traditional and suspension push-ups. Journal of Human Kinetics, 39(1), 75-83.
Snarr, R. L., & Esco, M. R. (2014). Electromyographical comparison of plank variations performed with and without instability devices. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 28(11), 3298-3305.
Snarr, R., Nickerson, B., & Esco, M. (2014). Effects of hand-grip during the inverted row with and without a suspension device: An electromyographical investigation. Euro J Sports Exercise Sciences, 3, 1-5.
Sparkes, R., & Behm, D. G. (2010). Training adaptations associated with an 8-week instability resistance training program with recreationally active individuals. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(7), 1931-1941.
Topçu, H. (2021). Sabit olmayan farklı zeminlerde uygulanan egzersizler sırasında kas aktivasyonunun incelenmesi. Doktora tezi, Bursa Uludag Üniversitesi.
Torres, R. J., Pirauá, A. L., Nascimento, V. Y., Dos Santos, P. S., Beltrão, N. B., De Oliveira, V. M., Pitangui, A. C. R., & De Araújo, R. C. (2017). Shoulder muscle activation levels during the push-up-plus exercise on stable and unstable surfaces. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 26(4), 281-286.
Tsaklis, P., Malliaropoulos, N., Mendiguchia, J., Korakakis, V., Tsapralis, K., Pyne, D., & Malliaras, P. (2015). Muscle and intensity based hamstring exercise classification in elite female track and field athletes: implications for exercise selection during rehabilitation. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 209-217.
Tsang, W. W., & Hui-Chan, C. W. (2003). Effects of tai chi on joint proprioception and stability limits in elderly subjects. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(12), 1962-1971.
Uribe, B. P., Coburn, J. W., Brown, L. E., Judelson, D. A., Khamoui, A. V., & Nguyen, D. (2010). Muscle activation when performing the chest press and shoulder press on a stable bench vs. a Swiss ball. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(4), 1028-1033.
Verhagen, E. A. L. M., Van Tulder, M., Van der Beek, A. J., Bouter, L. M., & Van Mechelen, W. (2005). An economic evaluation of a proprioceptive balance board training programme for the prevention of ankle sprains in volleyball. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(2), 111-115.
Waddington, G., Seward, H., Wrigley, T., Lacey, N., & Adams, R. (2000). Comparing wobble board and jump-landing training effects on knee and ankle movement discrimination. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 3(4), 449-459.
Wallace, B. J., Winchester, J. B., & McGuigan, M. R. (2006). Effects of elastic bands on force and power characteristics during the back squat exercise. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 20(2), 268-272.
Willardson, J. M., Fontana, F. E., & Bressel, E. (2009). Effect of surface stability on core muscle activity for dynamic resistance exercises. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 4(1), 97-109.
Williams Jr, M. R., Hendricks, D. S., Dannen, M. J., Arnold, A. M., & Lawrence, M. A. (2020). Activity of shoulder stabilizers and prime movers during an unstable overhead press. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 34(1), 73-78.
Zatsiorsky, V. M., Kraemer, W. J., & Fry, A. C. (2020). Science and practice of strength training. Human Kinetics.
Zemková, E., Jeleň, M., Cepková, A., & Uvaček, M. (2021). There is No cross effect of unstable resistance training on power produced during stable conditions. Applied Sciences, 11(8), 3401.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of Human Sciences

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors can retain copyright, while granting the journal right of first publication. Alternatively, authors can transfer copyright to the journal, which then permits authors non-commercial use of the work, including the right to place it in an open access archive. In addition, Creative Commons can be consulted for flexible copyright licenses.
©1999 Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.